Astaxanthin

Astaxanthin is a natural ketolutenoid and a potent antioxidant. Astaxanthin scavenges reactive oxygen species and activates the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway to upregulate endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT, and GPx. Astaxanthin inhibits NF-κB activation to reduce the release of inflammatory factors including TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β. Astaxanthin can be used in studies on oxidative stress, skin photoaging, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases^[1-4].

In vitro, treatment of SH-SY5Y cells with 0.032-20μM Astaxanthin for 24h reduced amyloid β aggregation and deposition around the cells, inhibited amyloid β fibril formation, suppressed amyloid β-induced early apoptosis, and restored impaired cell migration speed and directional persistence^[5]. Treatment of A172 cells with 50μM-100μM Astaxanthin for 24-48h decreased cell migration and invasion abilities, downregulated MMP-2 expression, and attenuated MMP-9 activity^[6]. Treatment of KATO-III and SNU-1 cells with 10-100μM Astaxanthin for 24h inhibited cell proliferation, increased the proportion of cells in the G0/G1 phase, decreased the proportion of cells in the S phase, and reduced p-ERK levels^[7].

In vivo, intraperitoneal injection of 40mg/kg Astaxanthin into Swiss albino mice for 5 consecutive days followed by indomethacin administration increased gastric juice pH, restored gastric tissue reduced glutathione levels to normal, decreased malondialdehyde levels, attenuated NF-κB and caspase-3 expression in gastric tissue, and reduced gastric mucosal ulcer damage^[8]. Intraperitoneal injection of 10-30mg/kg Astaxanthin into BALB/c mice 30min before tert-butyl hydroperoxide administration for 60 consecutive days improved learning and memory performance, decreased ROS, Cyt-C, Apaf-1, Casp-3, and CAD levels and Bax expression in hippocampal tissue, increased GSH and Bcl-2 expression, and downregulated p-ERK1/2, FOS, and JUN expression while increasing phospho-CREB levels^[9]. Gavage of 5mg/mL Astaxanthin at 0.5mL per day for 4 weeks in a C57BL/6 mouse model of oligoasthenospermia increased body weight, improved sperm concentration and forward motility, promoted spermatogenesis, decreased MDA and iron ion levels in testicular tissue, enhanced GSH-Px activity, and upregulated GPX4, GLS2, Steap3, and VDAC expression to regulate ferroptosis and fatty acid metabolism, reduce mitochondrial oxidative stress damage, and promote spermatogenesis^[10].

References:

[1] Si P, Zhu C. Biological and neurological activities of astaxanthin (Review). Mol Med Rep. 2022 Oct;26(4):300.

[2] Higuera-Ciapara I, Félix-Valenzuela L, Goycoolea FM. Astaxanthin: a review of its chemistry and applications. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2006;46(2):185-96.

[3] Snell TW, Carberry J. Astaxanthin Bioactivity Is Determined by Stereoisomer Composition and Extraction Method. Nutrients. 2022 Apr 6;14(7):1522.

[4] Sun L, Li Y, Yang A, et al. Astaxanthin: A comprehensive review of synthesis, biological activities and applications. Food Chem. 2025 Oct 1;488:144847.

[5] Ananda SH, Kuragano M, Tokuraku K. Elucidation of the Neuroprotective Effects of Astaxanthin Against Amyloidβ Toxicity in the SH-SY5Y Human Neuroblastoma Cell Line. Molecules. 2025 Nov;30(21):4271.

[6] Siangcham T, Vivithanaporn P, Sangpairoj K, et al. Anti-Migration and Invasion Effects of Astaxanthin against A172 Human Glioblastoma Cell Line. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2020 Jul;21(7):2029-33.

[7] Kim JH, Park JJ, Lee BJ, et al. Astaxanthin Inhibits Proliferation of Human Gastric Cancer Cell Lines by Interrupting Cell Cycle Progression. Gut Liver. 2016 May;10(3):369-374.

[8] Aly MH, Said AK, Farghaly AM, et al. Protective effect of astaxanthin on indomethacin-induced gastric ulcerations in mice. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology. 2024;397(10):9897-9907.

[9] Xiong Z, Li Z, Sima X, et al. Astaxanthin reduces TBPH-induced neurobehavioral deficits in mice by the ROS-ERK1/2-FOS pathway. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2024;281:116674.

[10] Liu H, Chen X, Feng X, et al. Astaxanthin Promotes Spermatogenesis in by Reducing Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress Damage and Regulating Fatty Acid Metabolism and Ferroptosis. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2025;19:7777-7794.